Writing


 * CHAPTER 6**
 * ILONA LEKI**


 * SECOND LANGUAGE WRITING**

As Cumming states L2 "Writing is a text, is composing, and is social construction" (1998: 61). Modern L2 writing instruction and research tends to shift its perspectives from texts to processes (composing), to sociopolitical contexts (social construction). Once writing was considered handmde means of strengthening grammar and vocabulary acquisition (Rivers, 1968). Nowadays it is becoming more composing in its nature, as well as a means of participation in international interactions. Writing is also viewed as a "gatekeeping" tool in the center of access to knowledge, power, and resources (Crowley, 1998; Russel, 1991). For some users writing is bounded to the application of short notes or filling out forms, however vast majority of works deal with writing in academic and professional settings. The question arises how best to teach L 2 writing. Consequently another question is coming to light - What is good writing? - These questions are open to debate. The concerns can be divided into 4 orientations:
 * Text- and classroom-based orientations
 * Process-based orientations
 * Budding sense of disciplinary
 * Growing orientation to sociopolitical issues


 * TEXT- AND CLASSROOM-BASED ORIENTATIONS**

In early modern writing more interest was in the issue of error correction and the decrease of the number of them. Latest considerations deal with reduction of attention given to errors, especially to sentence-level ones. Instead more interest became to be given to contrastive rhetoric, which means that different cultures produce culturally dependent specific texts (Kaplan 1966). However, this core understanding started to coincide with another approach which presupposes the idea, that writing is socially constructed due to mainly genre studies. Another stage in the development of writing was the shift from imitation of model texts to process approach to writing (multiple drafting), which leads to revision beyond sentence-level corrections. In this approach peer- and self- revisions are suggested on a par with teacher-revision. Furthermore, L2 writing professionals are starting to perceive the fact that writing is embedded with complex, disciplinary, social, and political contexts, and needs to be controlled both by teachers, and by students. Taking into account all the characteristics of writing mentioned above, writing assessment needs careful treatment.(Hamp-Lyons, 2001). It is important to speak more in detalis about writing assessment. It is known that in most academic contexts writing is evaluated. There are different types of evaluative measures that are used to decide the educational fate of L2 writers. Assessing the writing it is important to consider what exactly is to be evaluated or who should evaluate it. Many research studies have shown that very often writing is evaluated by inappropriate raters like for example when L1 writing teachers evaluate L2 writing. This is not so valid because these teachers have no understanding of L2 writing issues. There are also problems in the case when the same writing proficiency exam is used with L1 and L2 writers. In this case the choice of culturally appropriate topics is necessary. Finally, considerably important fact is whether different standards should be used to evaluate when L1 and L2 writers are rated together. Perhaps there are no satisfactory answers to the questions like what is an appropriate text to rate or what should be taken into account when rating L2 writers’ texts.


 * PROCESS - BASED ORIENTATIONS**

According to the author, discussions about texts, tests, teaching methodologies still take place. These issues are in the center of scholar's attention but a shift has taken place from product-based writing to process-based. Emig's (1971) study resulted in important findings concerning what cognitive processes underlie in L2 writing and how they influence L2 writers. Thus the results showed that: - Proficient L2 writers focus on content and not only on form - L2 writers need to reach a threshold level of competency in L2 before they can combine some complicated processed while writing - Writers' processes differ form learner/ writer to learner/writer. This is because of L1 interference in L2 (Arndt, 1987) - Passing to L1 can be a useful tool for brainstorming and generating ideas, thus encouraging more competent way of thinking in L2.

Such studies look at L2 writing as some single moment in time. The radical change happened when the question of how individuals' writing processes and skills developed over time, as opposed to how thy can be used in the moment of writing. In other words, this shift aimed to see what social, personal, educational contexts are required/ important to broaden the learners' L2 writing.


 * BUDDING SENSE OF DISCIPLINARITY**

L2 writing is “at the moment of crisis” as there are very few programs suggested that can really contribute its development. Little attention has been paid to the possibility of second language acquisition through L2 writing, and perhaps this was because historically the attention was mainly concentrated on learning a second language though speaking rather through other aspects. Lado speaks about the mismatch between the writing in L2 classes and writing done in further disciplinary areas. The problem is that the knowledge acquired in L2 writing for further academic purposes somehow does not function later.

According to the author, many writers reflect on central questions such as what good writing is, how L2 writing is done, how to teach L2 writing, what good writing is good for, etc. The author states, that increasing numbers of L2 writing researchers begin to address sociopolitical questions in writing. The historical trajectory of L2 writing moved from tight control over L2 writing toward a growing interest in individual as well as broad sociopolitical and historical content.
 * GROWING ORIENTATION ON SOCIOPOLITICAL ISSUES**