Ch.+19+by+Rebecca+Oxford

There are different factors leading to Variations in Language Learning. They are mainly contextual (including "large culture", "small culture" and second vs. foreign language environment) and individual student characteristics (stylistic, cognitive and affective, and demographic). But some other individual student characteristics influence variations in language learning such as aptitude, attention, metacognitive awareness that are not investigated in this chapter.
 * Chapter 19 **
 * Sources of Variation in Language Learning **


 * Contextual Sources of Variation in Language Learning **

Several authors assume that studying culture is not only looking at customs, institutions or artifacts, but it is also the study of people’s values, beliefs and attitudes and their influence on people’s interaction. According to Banks (1991), Oxford (1996) and Oxford and Anderson (1995) culture plays an essential role in the “formation of individual’s personality and learning processes”. It is known that there are two types of cultures: large and small. Both cultures are important for language development. Small culture includes informal or “street” learning and self-access centers (Bailey and Nunan 1996). As Yang (1992) assumes these cultures are interconnected and they frequently intersect and sometimes students’ large-cultural beliefs influence or limit “language achievement in small-cultural university classrooms”.
 * Large and Small Cultures**

Widely accepted terms FL and SL refer to Foreign Language or Second Language environments; these are the two different language learning environments in which a student can learn another language. According to Dornyei (1990) and Green and Oxford (1995) in a second language situation, the language learner is exposed to the target language outside of the classroom in a variety of settings; for example, students who come to Canada to learn English are learning in a second language environment. Being in a foreign language environment means that the learner will rarely, if ever, have opportunity for exposure to the target language outside of the classroom; for example a student who is studying German while living in Spain would be studying in a foreign language environment.
 * Second vs. Foreign Language Environments**


 * Individual Student Characteristics Related to Variation in Language Learning **

The term //styles// itself refers to general approaches to learning or problem solving. This category includes Brain hemisphericity, learning styles and personality types. //Sensory preferences// can be visual, auditory, kinesthetic and tactile (Dreyer 1998; Ehrman 1996; Reid 1995, 1998). //Visual// students enjoy learning through reading, video watching and picture. //Auditory// students like oral input, conversations, debates. //Kinesthetic and tactile// (so called hands-on or haptic) learners like tangible objects and physical models, and movement. //Field independence (FI) differs from field dependence (FD) in that the FI// develop analytic language skills, whereas FD evolves social language skills (Dreyer 1998; Stansfield and Hansen 1983; Witkin et.al. 1977). For example, learners with FI prefer factual, task-oriented and impersonal materials for learning//.// //Extroverts//, who get energy from working with other people, while //Introverts// – from working alone. //Sensing-oriented// individuals are realistic and practical, whereas //intuitive// individuals are imaginative and theory oriented. //Thinking-oriented// individuals have analytic style, while //feeling-oriented// people are more emotional. //Judging-oriented// individuals are structure-creators and judgers, and //perceiving-oriented// people are don not prefer quick decision making. Learning styles correlate with personality types, brain hemisphericity, as well as chosen learning strategies in language learning.
 * //Stylistic Factors//**
 * Brain hemisphericity** is the tendency of an individual to solve a problem using either left or right hemisphere of the brain (Torrance, Taggart, and Taggart 1984). Each hemisphere has its specific functions, however, if a part of one of the hemispheres responsible for a certain function is damaged, the other hemisphere is taking over the certain hemisphere. So, some generalizations can be observed. Left hemisphere dominant individuals are analytic, logical, verbal, and rational learners, whereas right hemisphere dominant individuals are more integrative, imaginative, sense-oriented, intuitive and emotional learners (Torrance 1988).
 * Learning styles** such as //sensory preferences// and //field independence (FI) vs. field dependence// //(FD)// are main approaches learners use in learning any subject (Oxford and Ehrman 1993). Learning style includes distinctive behavior, an indicator of the way learner learns or interact with his/her environment.
 * Personality types** are categorized by Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Myer and McCaulley 1985) into four dimensions: //extroverted/introverted, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling,// and //judging/perceiving//. In the result of matrixing we have individuals of sixteen types:

Among these factors are the motivation, self-referential judgments, various language learning strategies and anxiety.
 * //Cognitive and Affective Factors//**

Clement, Donyei, and Noels (1994) identified five EFL motivational orientations: 1.To make friends and travel 2.To identify with the target language group 3.To now various peoples, cultures and worlds events 4.To advance academically or pofessionally 5.To understand English-language media //Self-esteem// is a judgment of one's own pesonal worth or value. //Self-efficacy// refers to one's judgments about one's own ability to succeed on a task or long term effort. Learning strategies are steps or operations used by learners to learn more effectively. Learning strategies are linked to learning styles, personality, gender and culture (Cohen 1998). Anxiety is a very serious factor impereding the learning and performance. It can be expressed when speaking in front of a class, writing a paper, etc. But once anxiety is overcome, the learner feels more and more motivated to learn and works even harder. Anxiety should be overcome though humor, group work, various discussions, etc. As to the strategies of learning languages, for the successful learners there are more specific patterns of strategy used for learning, and those who are less able, use strategies in a more unconnected way.
 * Language learning motivation** is described as an extent to which the individual works or strives to learn the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experiences in this activity (Gardner 1985:10).
 * Self-referential judgments**, such as self-esteem and self-efficacy are judgments the learner makes about herself or himself.
 * Anxiety **
 * Learning Strategies **

//Age and Gender // Age and gender are considered to be one of the most important demographic factors that affect language learning. Gender differences show that female demonstrate better verbal skills and males_ better special skills. Females are more inclined to learn cooperatively, whereas males tend to learn individually. Females turn to using strategies for learning more often than males. Age is also important, though the notion of “critical age” is denied here. This is explained by the fact that though young learners do have some advantages, adults have others, which the younger ones do not have, for example, the knowledge of syntax and morphology.
 * Demographic Factors **