2+-+Research+Approaches

**Kaplan, Chapter 2** **Research approaches in applied linguistics by P. Duff**

The chapter mainly puts stress on such issues as the distinction between qualitative and quantitative approaches to AL research. According to the author, each of these two approaches has their own characteristic features. For example, when discussing the quantitative research it is worth mentioning that the latter encompasses such tools or ways as surveys, correlations, experimental and quasi-experimental studies. As for the qualitative research which is totally different in its nature and wider in its own right including such approaches as life history, descriptive research (case studies), ethnography, various accounts, wide range of analyses, and studies referring to various aspect and fields.The author also highlights that though there are distinctions between qualitative(which often assosiated with experiments) and quantitative(ethnography or case study) research approaches, they can compliment each other.What is more interesting and new is the fact that there is some sort of discrimination between these two approaches. As the author states the quantitative research is still considered to be stronger and why not even valid by its nature. But this is still a topic for further discussion and no ultimate ground can be provided for stating the strength of one of the two. Some applied linguists suggest other research approaches. For instance, Seliger and Shohamy (1989) differentiate between qualitative and descriptive research. Another division of research types is suggested by Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) who make comparison between cross-linguistic (more quantitative) and longitudinal (more qualitative) approaches. With the development of quantitative research applied linguists have concentrated more on the reliability and validity of research components such as protocols, procedures, scales and other instruments. However, quantitative research lacks ecological validity, since language, contexts, and activities may not represent commonly faced by language learners in real-life situations. The author stresses the importance of validity of a finding, which means that with the replication of the research the result should be similar and it should be applicable. Thus, different methods and characteristics were used/piloted to be closed to the criteria of a good and valid quantitative research. During the years of existence of qualitative research in AL more attention has been shifted to cultural aspects of language learning and teaching, as well as to gender, social, political, and historical aspects. This gave ground to sociocultural research including conversation, discourse and narrative analysis, corpus linguistics. There is another worth-mentioning change in AL research approaches that the newer approaches are not replacing the old ones but they complementing them by providing alternatives. Now not only scientific research articles (as it used to be in the past), but also linguistic messages, symbols, and genres which are associated with nonscientific discourse are investigated  As far as I understood from the chapter, the development of the transformation of AL research can also be influenced by the notion called technology. The new databases, tape recorders, scanners, cameras, and what can not bring to the language use in various electronic networks, thus, give fresh and new ideas for AL research, language use, and acquisition in general.

Chapter 10 (Linda Harklau) The chapter is full of new ideas and new concepts which are worth examining. The most important one is considered to be the ethnography of research on SLT/SLL. The term ethnography means to look at the ways of how people take part in their own social and cultural dimensions. What is really worth mentioning is the fact that ethnography targets mainly on small groups or units within larger ones. The result of this is the interaction between people in everyday settings, in their activities, attitudes, even beliefs, and opinions. Thus, ethnography is somehow a record of those activities. All ethnographic research involves case study though not all of case studies are ethnographic.  Another interesting point refers to the sociology of language. According to Fishman(1968) and Dorian (1999), this term refers to the utilization of ethnographic records to obtain information about language choices and its use in multilingual schools, workplaces, and various discourse settings. Ethnographies of L2 teaching and learning include participant observation, fieldnotes, recordings, interviews, as well as teacher lecture notes, handouts, annotated lesson plans, samples of textboooks, student-written materials, journals, diaries, narratives, comments, questionnaires, etc. However, there are some problems connected with ethnography and ethnographic research. The point is that along with the 'explosion' and the spread out of ethnographic approaches, ethnography is sometimes confused with qualitative research. And the lack of clear definitions creates misuse of the term "ethnography". Another problem is that ethnographic work remains limited mainly to White Anglophone researchers in English-speaking countries. And this, in its turn, leads to the lack of ethnographic work on language learning outside of Britain and North America.

As it is mentioned above some researchers contribute ethnography to a science of social. And another problem connected with ethnograpy, that is worth mentioning, is that these researchers believe that the etnographers' attitude can hardy be completely objective. However they also mention that the use of a certain methodology or different studies can result in more or less objectivity.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Chapter 14, **Action Research** **by Anne Bruns**

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">This chapter introduces a new concept called action research (AR). AR was "born" during 'a quiet methodological revolution'. This movement involved qualitative, interpretive and participative research paradaigms. The main point in AR is that language learners are themselves involved in the procedure of enquiry based on their own practical concerns and needs. Among the main characteristic features of AR are the enhancement of practice, the development of new theoretical concepts and understandings, etc. One of the most interesting things about AR is that it refers also to industry, community and health settings.AR has been criticized a lot mainly in the USA and in Britain, and as a result AR was marginalized by the late 1950-s. Though it was 'reborn' in the 1960-s and 1970-s due to the emergence of curriculum in the sphere of investigation. The main point in the process of curriculum practice was the centrality and the importance of the cognitive, the reflective and the deliberative. The attitude to AR changed again in the mid-1980-s. Here an 'activist' form of AR emerged where the practitioner himself is responsible for its own 'freedom' from bias and isolation. Ellis (1997) offers a new way of looking at research itself. The new way is to aim to pay less attention to the results of the research and rather put more stress on the production of that research. This implies the shift to practice which will help the teachers and the learners to understand each other while communicating in a language. As Kemmis (1993) assumes, it is possible to identify the types of collaboration, such as co-option- a research owned by the researcher; co-operative – teacher collaborates with researchers; and collaborative – and teacher has equal role in participating in the research and is both the agent and the object of the research. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">In this chapter it is also significant to mention Crookes (1993) name, who distinguishes two kinds of AR to the second language field. The first type comprises "the teacher as researcher" which is a conservative version and the second type follows a more progressive and critical line. Although this is a new approach in the field of AR, the majority of publications seek to find other new versions of the AR process and there is a strong tendency for it to be the "flying visit" variety. Moreover, Allwright (1993) suggests an alternative version to AR, which is "exploratory teaching". He assumes that "teachers face the risk of discovering the hard way that research can be an unacceptable burden to add to those they are already suffering from in their daily lives as classroom teachers". Allwright (1993) believes that exploratory teaching is more feasible than AR, because it focuses on //understanding// rather than on //problem solving//. <span style="color: #008080; display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">AR can assist the field of ELT in two ways: socioconstructivist and sociopolitical. The first one sees the development of teachers’ knowledge along with social situations and the environment where they work. The second way of assisting ELT is the sociopolitical aspect. McNiff (1972) states that “politics will intrude” and that it will be inevitable. However it can lead to multiple changes in language teaching. AR sees the teachers as agents rather than recipients of knowledge of L2 teaching and learning. <span style="color: #0000ff; display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">//Critiques of AR// <span style="color: #0000ff; display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">We look at action research from positive sides, though there are also weaknesses in the conduction of it. Jarvis (1981) states that teachers may be incapable of doing AR since it can be seen as a mainly specialist procedure and the action has no academic prestige. The lack of prestige can be doubt about the accuracy of the action. <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Another ambiguity in AR conduction is the judgement and reporting procedure. Bailey (1998) suggest that AR not be judged by traditional criteria since its aim is to found local understanding. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> The other concerns are the burden of teaching and research at the same time, time tension in longitudinal research, over-involvement of researchers and feasible bias.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Case Study
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">What Are Case Studies? <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Case study is described in terms of a research type that is largely applied to explore issues in the field of education. Most often, case studies are of //qualitative// and //interpretative// nature. The author notes that the basic privilege of case study over other research methods is that it is realized within a certain real life context. As far as the researcher’s attention is concentrated on a particular case, the possibility of getting a deeper insight into it increases significantly. Hence, the changes over time are tracked and recorded. On the other hand, case studies are somewhat limited. Typically, their findings are true of a certain group or an individual (the subject(s)). It might be inferred from Lier’s chapter on case studies that they rarely supply enough evidence to make //generalizations//. <span style="color: teal; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 10pt;">But it is also mentioned in the chapter that most of the cases which are investigated by the case study can not be investigated equally by any other research method. <span style="color: teal; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 10pt;">Yin is one of the scholars that defined the case study research. He named it "an empirical inquiry". According to him it should investigate a current phenomenon in a real-life context, but the boundaries between the context and the phenomenon should not be very obvious and plus multiple sources of evidence should be used.

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 10pt;">There are 7 kinds of common cases, such as <span style="color: #800080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. case materials (diaries & interviews) <span style="color: #800080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. case reports (1st person narrative accounts) <span style="color: #800080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">3. case studies (3rd person accounts) <span style="color: #800080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 10pt;">4. teaching cases (those edited for training purposes) <span style="color: #800080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">5. case methods of teaching (specific methodologies for teaching) <span style="color: #800080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">6. casebook (these are collected cases for teacher education) <span style="color: #800080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">7. case-based curriculum (when a curriculum is constructed around the case)

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">The most common of the above listed types are case studies of third person accounts.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">**The Place of Case Study Research in SLA Theory and Practice**

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">This section discusses major case studies and their influence in the field. Case study can highly affect the knowledge of SLA. However, the role of case studies was underestimated as compared to experimental or process- product studies. The main concern is that case studies are not generalizable. It is difficult to generalize from a group to population without control. However, vice versa is also possible. Nevertheless, particularization can be important. I t is possible to generalize from lower-level elements to more higher-level ones, that is to particularize. In case of //particularization// the info from a study can be adapt to a broad range of cases if contextual differences are taken into consideration. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">These two cases allow researchers to further investigate the field. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">It is worth mentioning the cases studies of Nigel by M.A.K.Halliday (1975), study by Schumann of Alberto, and many others. These case studies help researchers to make up their theoretical views. For instance, Shumann created acculturation model which is still being discussed. Basically, case studies shaped the knowledge of base of SLA. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">There is also a need to mention the value of case studies as a tool for beginners in the field.It gives the variety of the problems involved in SLA (from the beginners' percpectives) because a well-writen case study can show a lot of key issues which a textbook or experimental research study cannot do.It can also be valuable for graduate students in SLA as a step to the reserach community. So case studies can serve //an introduction to the graduate students// on one hand and as //a device for teacher education and further development// on the other.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">According to Yin's definition case studies are viewed from two perspectives, whether they are collective or individual and if there is intervention into case studies or not. For example, observations are considered to have no intervention both in individual and collective studies, whereas action research and pedagogical treatment or elicitation have intervention while conduction.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Sequences in SLA <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Many case studies have been conducted in order to clarify the sequences in Second Language acquisition. Learners pass through several stages in the way of learning a second language. One of these stages is the silent stage or as Itoh and Hatch call it “the rejection stage” during which the learners don’t speak but they begin their learning process by absorbing. Learners start to speak using formulaic expressions for communication. Most case studies show that these grammatical structures that are used in early stages are not analyzed be learners, but they are mechanically learnt as one single word. And learners cannot use them to express new utterances. (As for example in EEC classes students of preparation groups pronounce “It’s an apple”, “it’s an ant” etc.) It is only at later stages that learners start to distinguish verbs, nouns etc. And it is importantto note that case studies show also that something that some structures that were formed correctly at one stage may be changed into an incorrect form at a later stage (such as in irregular verb form). The reason is the influence of a rule that a learner begins to learn and makes generalizations. This process of analyzing formulaic expressions learnt at an early stage Kellerman calls U-shaped learning curve. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Pienemann developed a theory about the developmental processing in SLA which says that there are several stages of “cognitive complexity and processing constrains” in language that the learner tends to acquire. It is necessary to go through these stages in order to have progress in language learning. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">** The history of case studies **

<span style="color: teal; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">This chapter gives summarized information about the case studies that have had some influence on the field. It tells us about the case studies of both the Adult and Child SLA development.There is stated that case studies are very powerful in terms of revealing some of the problems of acquiring a second language. And it can be assumed that in the case of adults there is a further need to study language development in its social context and to have further investigation in its understanding, awareness, identity, and power. Whereas, in the case of children SLA development, there are no clear answers. However, it usually takes much than it is assumed.Different studies were conducted by MacWhinney & Bates stating the significance of environmental factors, which are seen of a crucial base for language acquisition as opposed to the Chomskian nativist tradition.

<span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">**Current issues** <span style="color: #000080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">There are some issues and debates connected with the case study approach. One of such issues is the role of social context in the acquisition of skills and knowledge. The point here is the extent of transformation of the abilities required in one task context into another context. Another topic of interest is the role of technology in SLA including learner motivation and autonomy in online learning settings. The third issue is related to the usefulness of the case study approach. Here it is worth mentioning that this approach can be very helpful and effective both for teachers and learners. Teachers can examine several case studies, draw parallels between these cases and their own classes and, if necessary, make some changes in their own program or curriculum. As to students, they can conduct their own small case study after the examination of some related case studies. And last but not least, cases studies can be very useful in highlighting issues such as racial discrimination, age and gender inequalities, etc. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> In 1995 Stake made a distinction between an intrinsic and instrumental case studies. Stake states, that if the case study is an intrinsic one, more attention should be paid on the contexts i.e. the case itself and in the instrumental one the focus is on gathering applicable data. At the end Stake (1995) mentions that we should be very careful when we deal with case studies, as careful as we deal with our personal life, our business activities which are seen and known only by us. Thus, we must use the opportunity to notice the unseen and investigate it in - depth using our strongest analytic and "interpretative powers" (p. 136). We should relate it to something that we really value.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">** Chapter 12 ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">** Quantitative Research Methods ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">by Anne Lazaraton

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Cumming (1994) shows in his article "Alternatives in TESOL Research: Descriptive, Interpretive, and Ideological Orientations"

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">published in TESOL Quarterly that various researchers have conducted different kinds of research and reported that quantitative research is over-dominant in attempts to analyze learner language.While analyzing the nature of the articles published in famous journals (such as TESOL Quarterly, Modern Language Journal, Language Learning, and Studies in Second Language Acquisition), it seems more than 80 percent of them are quantitative, 13% are qualitative, and the rest are mixture of both quantitative and qualitative in nature.

<span style="color: #006aff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">This chapter analyzes the status of quantitative research in applied linguistics by the following:
 * <span style="color: #006aff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> Overviewing the role of quantitative research second language learning and teaching in the past twenty years by carrying a survey in applied linguistic journals and books to see what applied linguists have said about quantitative research methods
 * <span style="color: #006aff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Summarizing the outcomes of an empirical study that analyzed the research studies in the same journals over the 11 years of period.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">** Background: A Historical Overview **

<span style="color: #006aff; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">A lot of textbooks, journals, articles and texts were published about qualitative research in applied linguistics by prominent authors. Beginning from 1980s when Hatch and Farhady published the book called Research Design and Statistics for Applied Linguistics(1982), it tunred out that there was a lack of books on research design and statistics.In the next few years there were published different books and articles conserning statistics for Applied Linguistics such as Butler's (1985) Statistics in Linguistics and Woods, Fletcher and Hughes's (1986) Statistics in Language Studies. The books were to cover statistical concepts, research design and different parametric and nonparametric statistical tests. "Statistics in Language Studies" teaches how to evaluate and use statistics. <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">There were also various publications such as Brown's Understanding Research in Second Language Learning: A Teacher's Guide to Statistics and Research Design (1988) which was designed for teachers with no statistical background. It covered the basics of research design, statstical concepts and its simple procedures and approaches to research evaluation. Later in 1989 another book called Second Language Research by Selinger and Shohamy was published which mainly showed the research methods and disign. <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">The results of the study conducted by Lazaraton, Riggenbach and Ediger (1987) revealed that applied linguists had limited abilities to realize their empirical work.After this Evelyn Hatch wrote a revision af Hatch and Farhady's 1982 book which aims toward not only statistical literacy but also productivity. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;"> Later, in 1992 two more text- Johnson's Approaches to Reserach in SLA and Nunan's Research Methods in Language Learning were published. The first guides to six research approaches (coorelational, cse-study survey, ethnographic, experimental, and large-scale) and the second leads the readers to understand and critique empirical research studies. In 1994 Cumming had his valuable contribution to this topic. Various researchers were asked to write an article on alternative approaches to research whic would include descriptive and interpretive approaches. Analyzing all these the researchers came to the conclusion that both qualitative and quantitative methodologies are vital for correct description and analysis of learners language (Tarone, 1994a). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">It's worth mentioning that since 1992 there haven't been published any "widely" used textbooks on research design and statistics. And those which appeared during one decade (1980s-1990s) have changed the current thinking on research methodology in applied linguistics.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">** The Study: Method ** <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 10pt;">There was an analysis of all data-based, empirical research articles in four applied linguistics journals from 1991 to 2001. These four journals were: <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 10pt;">1. Language Learning "A Journal of Research in Language Studies" <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 10pt;">2. Modern Language Journal "Devoted to research and discussion about the learning and teaching of foreign and second languages" <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 10pt;">3. Studies in Second Language Acquisition "Devoted to problems and issues in second and foreign acquisition of any language" <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 10pt;">4. TESOL Quarterly "represents a variety of cross-disciplinary interests, both theoretical and practical" <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 10pt;">Some of the articles were excluded from the study because these were guest-edited, conceptual and theoretical articles (didn't present empirical research). <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 10pt;">All these articles were categorized in 4 groups:
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Quantitative
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Qualitative
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">Mixed